A review of low-level air pollution and adverse
REVIEW
A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health:implications for epidemiological studies and public policy
Neide Regina Simo?es Olmo,I Paulo Hila′rio do Nascimento Saldiva,I Alfe′sio Lu?′s Ferreira Braga,I,II,III Chin An Lin,I Ubiratan de Paula Santos,I Luiz Alberto Amador Pereira I,III
I Laboratory of Experimental Air Pollution(LIM05),Department of Pathology,Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Sa?o Paulo,Sa?o Paulo,Brazil. II Environmental Pediatrics Program,University of Santo Amaro Medical School,Sa?o Paulo,Brazil.III Community Health Post-Graduation Program,Catholic University of Santos,Santos,SP,Brazil.
The aim of this study was to review original scientific articles describing the relationship between atmospheric pollution and damage to human health.We also aimed to determine which of these studies mentioned public policy issues.Original articles relating to atmospheric pollution and human health published between1995and 2009were retrieved from the PubMed database and analyzed.This study included only articles dealing with atmospheric pollutants resulting primarily from vehicle emissions.Three researchers were involved in the final selection of the studies,and the chosen articles were approved by at least two of the three researchers.Of the84 non-Brazilian studies analyzed,80showed an association between atmospheric pollution and adverse effects on human health.Moreover,66showed evidence of adverse effects on human health,even at levels below the permitted emission standards.Three studies mentioned public policies aimed at changing emission standards. Similarly,the29selected Brazilian studies reported adverse associations with human health,and27showed evidence of adverse effects even at levels below the legally permitted emission standards.Of these studies,16 mentioned public policies aimed at changing emission standards.Based on the Brazilian and non-Brazilian scientific studies that have been conducted,it can be concluded that,even under conditions that are compliant with Brazilian air quality standards,the concentration of atmospheric pollutants in Brazil can negatively affect human health. However,as little discussion of this topic has been generated,this finding demonstrates the need to incorporate epidemiological evidence into decisions regarding legal regulations and to discuss the public policy implications in epidemiological studies.
KEYWORDS:Air pollution;adverse effects;human health;publication bias;public policies;systematic review.
Olmo NRS,Saldiva PHN,Braga ALF,An Lin C,Santos UP,Pereira LAA.A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health: implications for epidemiological studies and public policy.Clinics.2011;66(4):681-690.
Received for publication on November8,2010;First review completed on December6,2000;Accepted for publication on January17,2011 E-mail:neideolmo@usp.br
Tel.:55113061-8530
INTRODUCTION
Motor vehicle emissions have been increasing over time, and more efficient measures are required for their effective reduction.Among the anthropogenic sources of emissions, the present work focuses on pollution from mobile sources, primarily motor vehicles.
It is predicted that vehicle emissions in2030will be worse than they are now.The harmful effects of vehicle pollutants (hydrocarbons,nitrogen oxide,carbon monoxide and particulates)on human health and the environment have been scientifically proven,and the body of evidence detailing these effects continues to grow.1
Solid or suspended liquid particles,such as those present in aerosol sprays,are classified according to their aero-dynamic properties(which are the determinants of particle transportation,penetration and deposition in the respiratory airway)as follows:coarse(2.5to10m m aerodynamic diameter),fine(less than2.5m m in diameter)and ultrafine (less than0.1m m in diameter).11
In large urban centers,people die from causes related to air pollution each year.In addition to causing deaths,air pollution is also the cause of a number of immediate, medium-term and long-term human health problems.11 Fine particles can reach the alveoli and enter the blood stream,and heart and lung disease,100diabetes,102prema-ture birth,35low birth weight,34cancer,28sudden death37 and cognitive alterations41are some of the comorbidities that have been associated with the effects of or damage caused by air pollution in large urban centers.2 According to Damasceno-Rodrigues et al.(2009),the mechanisms by which air pollution negatively influences these comorbidities are not well understood.Possible
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CLINICS2011;66(4):681-690DOI:10.1590/S1807-59322011000400025
mechanisms,such as increased calcium influx upon contact with macrophages,upregulation of proinflammatory med-iators,increased blood viscosity,increased fibrinogen and C-reactive protein levels and alterations in blood rheology favoring coagulation,have been suggested.The oxidative stress generated by air pollution has also been proposed as a major mechanism of tissue injury leading to pulmonary and systemic inflammation.124
The World Health Organization(WHO)recommends PM2.5(particulate matter less than 2.5m m in diameter) rather than PM10(particulate matter less than10m m in diameter)as an indicator of risk to human health.4In1997, the American Environmental Agency(US EPA)established the initial parameters for PM2.5.
Several episodes of excessive pollution have been correlated with increased numbers of deaths in some cities in Europe and the United States.5,6.The Clean Air Act of 1956and1968expanded the oversight of polluting emis-sions.In1976in Europe,the Commission of the European Communities(CEC)established standards for air quality, which were further revised and used as the basis for European legislation.7In the1950s,California implemented pioneering legal regulations controlling vehicle emissions. In2005,the WHO also established standard values for this parameter.
In the1970s and1980s,increases in vehicle production led to a larger number of vehicles being used worldwide,a trend that was most noticeable in large urban centers.In Brazil,Resolution03/1990from the Environmental National Council(CONAMA),which used data from CONAMA Resolution05/1989,established standards for air quality consisting of‘‘the concentrations of pollution that,when exceeded,could affect the health,safety and wellbeing of the population,as well as causing damage to flora,fauna and the environment in general….’’The resolution described atmospheric pollution as‘‘any form of matter or energy with sufficient quantity,concentration,exposure or char-acteristics beyond the established levels that could cause the air to be the following:I-inadequate,harmful or damaging to health;II-inappropriate for public wellbeing;III-damaging to materials,fauna and flora;and IV-damaging to the safety,use and enjoyment of property and to the normal activities of the community.’’8
In1998,increased emissions of pollutants in Sa?o Paulo led to the implementation of the Program for Control of Air Pollution by Motor Vehicles,PROCONVE(originally created in1986).This program declared that new vehicles should conform to the maximum emission limits under standard tests using a reference fuel.It also required certification for prototypes and production line vehicles,a special license from the federal environmental authority for the use of alternative fuels,withdrawal and repair of vehicles that did not conform to the production or project specifications and prohibition of the sales of non-homo-logated vehicles.This program led to the removal of lead from gas in1989,set22%as the proportion of anhydrous alcohol to be added to gas across the entire country in1993 and gradually reduced the sulfur content in diesel fuel used inside cities.9
However,vehicle emissions are still the main source of atmospheric pollution,and the Brazilian standards have not changed since the1990s,when the CONAMA Resolution was published as Resolution03/1990.A number of studies have shown a clear association between atmospheric pollution and negative effects on human health,thus demonstrating the concern of the scientific community on this topic.However,despite the weight of scientific evidence,air quality standards in Brazil have remained the same over the last20years,indicating a significant imbalance between the science and public policy. Seeking a balance between individual rights(the exposure of each citizen to pollutants)and collective rights(those of society as a whole),the present study aimed to review original Brazilian and non-Brazilian studies carried out between1995and2009.By means of a systematic review, the cause-effect relationship between pollution from motor vehicles and adverse events on human health was exam-ined,both for pollution levels at legally permitted standards and those below the standards.Additionally,this review was conducted to identify whether these studies dealt with aspects of public policy involving measures to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution on human health.This outcome would suggest an interplay between the science and the adoption of public policies,thus expressing intersectoral attempts to protect our greatest asset,human health. Consequently,the hypothesis investigated in this review is that the interface between law and epidemiology is necessary for and capable of protecting human health from the effects of pollution.From this starting point,our work aimed to assist decision makers in discussing more restrictive proposals for air quality standards,following international trends.Furthermore,the present study not only reviewed data from epidemiological studies but also investigated which studies specifically assessed the data with respect to concerns for developing efficient public policy.
METHODS
PubMed was used for this review because it includes over 19million papers from health-related fields that were published in over3,800scientific journals.Furthermore, papers in the PubMed database include studies from other primary sources,such as Medline,meaning that PubMed includes a large number of both Brazilian and non-Brazilian reports published in internationally renowned scientific journals.PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information,and it is maintained by the National Library of Medicine.
The following terms were used for searching the PubMed database:
N air pollution,health,Brazil,epidemiologic;
N air pollution,health,Brazil;
N air pollution,health,Brazil,epidemiologic study;
N air pollution,health,epidemiologic cohort;
N air pollution,health,epidemiologic case control;
N air pollution,health,epidemiologic time series study; N traffic,air pollution,epidemiologic panel;
N traffic,air pollution,epidemiologic review.
Original studies were initially selected for our analysis after excluding those in which the objectives did not include vehicle atmospheric pollution(for example,papers on pollution due to sugar cane burning or papers regarding internal pollutants).
A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health
Olmo NRS et al.
CLINICS2011;66(4):681-690
At the next stage,three researchers were invited to choose epidemiological studies using their own judgment,based on experience,with the aim of addressing the study hypothesis presented above.The researchers separately made decisions regarding the inclusion of the studies to avoid bias in the inclusion criteria.The researchers were epidemiologists and experts on atmospheric pollution,and the studies were selected based on their epidemiological quality.Each of the reviewers received a file containing full reprints of the epidemiological studies,as well as a list of all study titles divided according to study type.After making their selections through an analysis of the basis and methodolo-gical quality of the studies,the researchers returned the file and titles.
The studies selected were those that received at least two votes for inclusion in the systematic review and that referred to outdoor air pollution,particularly the ones related to atmospheric emission of pollutants from motor vehicles.Only national and international studies related to air pollution in peer-reviewed journals,epidemiological studies,original articles and studies examining automotive sources of outdoor pollution with well-explained statistical positive or negative associations were included.
The final selection was made by the study supervisor, who reviewed all of the articles according to the inclusion criteria.
Two tables containing the following data were prepared: type of study,study design,outcome,study population, statistical analysis applied,pollutants investigated,esti-mates,covariables and whether the effects on health were assessed,including cases where the levels were below the legally permitted standards.One table included Brazilian papers,whereas the other included non-Brazilian studies. The data from these initial tables were used to produce two additional tables that are presented in this paper.These tables include only the type of study,study population, outcome,association,discussion of public policies for decreasing pollution levels,effects on health if emissions
remain below the Brazilian standards and the appropriate citation(s)for each study.
The scientific papers selected for this work were original, but any review articles and systematic review papers found were used for data comparison and discussion.
In addition,two figures showing the percentage increase in pollution,including cases where it was below the limits imposed by air quality standards,were designed.These figures present the percentage increases and their con-fidence intervals.
RESULTS
Initially,2,530Brazilian and non-Brazilian articles were collected,and after preliminary selection,249articles exclusively referring to outdoor pollution were chosen. After the subsequent analysis conducted by the three researchers participating in the study group,143reports were finally selected according the inclusion criteria described in the Methods section.
Only113of these articles were used in our final analysis because reviews and systematic reviews were excluded. Figure1shows the selection steps in the review process. The non-Brazilian studies selected included1clinical trial, 9case crossover studies,13case-control studies,15time series,28cohorts,10panels,22reviews,6systematic reviews and8cross-sectional studies.Therefore,a total of 112non-Brazilian studies were included.Excluding reviews and systematic reviews,84non-Brazilian studies remained for our final analysis(Table1).
The Brazilian studies selected included1case control,2 panels,2reviews,20time series and6cross-sectional studies.Therefore,a total of31Brazilian studies were included,and excluding reviews and systematic reviews,29 Brazilian studies remained for our final analysis(Table2). Of the84non-Brazilian studies selected for our analysis (excluding reviews and systematic reviews),66demon-strated effects on health,even when emissions were below the permitted levels(these studies are marked‘‘yes’’in the corresponding column in Table1).These66non-Brazilian studies demonstrated that,even when emissions of atmo-spheric pollutants were below the levels permitted by Brazilian legislation,they were capable of negatively affecting the health of the urban population.
Among the30Brazilian studies selected for the present work(excluding reviews),27showed that there were risks to health,even if the population was exposed to pollution levels below those permitted by Brazilian legislation.
The reviewed studies showed that some age groups, particularly the elderly and children,are more susceptible to air pollution emissions.Some diseases were frequently associated with exposure to air pollution;for
example, Figure1-Selection steps in the review process.
CLINICS2011;66(4):681-690A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health
Olmo NRS et al.
respiratory and cardiovascular outcomes were described in several studies (Tables 1and 2).
Only 3of the non-Brazilian studies and 16of the Brazilian studies specifically mentioned public policy.
Finally,Figures 2and 3show the percentage increase of some of the endpoints of the selected studies and their relative risks.
DISCUSSION
Although the papers selected for review in this study have associated atmospheric pollutants with damage to human health,including comorbidities such as respiratory diseases,cardiovascular diseases,pregnancy outcomes,cancer and death,most of these papers failed to mention public policy.Therefore,while science is making great
strides in demonstrating the harmful effects of atmospheric pollution on human health,public authorities are not using these data to make decisions concerning the reduction of emissions or the adoption of measures that might indirectly affect the comfort of the population and,therefore,might not be politically acceptable.Nonetheless,such measures should be adopted,together with an awareness campaign,so that a change of habits and attitudes occurs in everyday lives.
Epidemiological evidence produced using several differ-ent study models has demonstrated that atmospheric pollution negatively affects human health,even if the pollutants are below the levels established by Brazilian legislation (CONAMA National Council of the Environment Resolution 03/1990).However,despite the available scien-tific evidence,there has still not been any appropriate
Table 1-Non-Brazilian studies of air pollution,categorized by type of study,study population,outcomes and effects found.
Type of study (n )Study population (n )Outcome (n )Association (n )
Effect below the Brazilian limit (n )
Discussion on public policies for decreasing
emissions References
Clinical trial (1)Adults (1)Atherosclerosis Yes Yes (1)No (1)16Case crossover (9)Adults (5)Children (1)Respiratory diseases (4)
Yes (8)Yes (8)No (9)
17-25
Elderly (2)Cardiovascular diseases (5)No (1)No (1)All (1)
Case control (13)Adult (5)Respiratory diseases (4)
Yes (11)Yes (7)No (13)26-38
Children (7)Pregnancy-related outcomes
(3)
No (2)
No (6)
Elderly (1)Cardiovascular diseases (3)
Cancer (3)
Cohort (28)Adults (12)Respiratory diseases (8)
Yes (28)
Yes (22)
No (28)39-66
Children (13)Mortality (3)No (6)
Elderly (3)Pregnancy-related outcomes
(3)
Cognitive deficit (1)
Cancer (1)Otitis (1)
Cardiovascular diseases (11)
Panel (10)Adults (5)Respiratory diseases (5)
Yes (9)Yes (9)Yes (2)67-76
Children (3)Cardiovascular diseases (5)No(1)No (1)No (8)Elderly (2)
Time series (15)Adults (13)Respiratory diseases (1)
Yes (15)
Yes (15)
Yes (1)77-91
Elderly (1)Cardiovascular diseases (3)No (14)All (1)Mortality (11)
Cross-sectional (8)Adults (5)Respiratory diseases (6)
Yes (8)
Yes (4)No (8)
92-99
Children (2)Cardiovascular diseases (1)No (4)
Elderly (1)Diabetes (1)n =quantity.
Table 2-Brazilian studies of air pollution,categorized by type of study,study population,outcomes and effects found.
Type of study (n )Study population
(n )Outcome (n )Association (n )Effects below the Brazilian limit (n )Discussion on public policies for decreasing
emissions
References Case control (1)
Children (1)Perinatal death Yes
Not informed
Not informed
100Panel (2)
Adults (1)Blood pressure;carboxyhemoglobin Yes for both
Yes (2)
Yes (1)101–102
Children (1)No (1)Time series (20)
Adults (7)Respiratory diseases (14);Yes (19)Yes (18)Yes (12)103-123
Children (11)Pregnancy-related outcomes
(2);
No (1)No (2)
No (8)
Elderly (2)Cardiovascular diseases (4)Cross-sectional (6)
Children (5)Respiratory diseases (4)Yes (5)Yes (6)
Yes (3)124-129
All (1)
Child mortality (1)
No (1)
No (3)
Pregnancy-related outcomes (1)
n =quantity.
A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health Olmo NRS et al.
CLINICS 2011;66(4):681-690
reaction in terms of the adoption of public policies in Brazil that are aimed at improving the air quality of large urban centers.
Measures such as vehicle inspections,efficient public transport,traffic management,bus lanes,bicycle lane systems and urban tolls are all consistent with proposals for creating a healthy environment.However,the use of cleaner fuel must also be pursued because sustained sulfur emissions will lead to more deaths and hospitalizations.
Studies carried out at the University of Sa
?o Paulo have confirmed that living in a city with polluted air leads to a 75%increase in the risk of a heart attack compared to living in a city with clean air.Additionally,the possibility of dying in a traffic jam is two and a half times greater in a polluted city.For every 10m g/m 3of PM 10removed from the air,there is an increase in life expectancy of eight to twelve months.If an economic model was applied to Brazilian public health,and the well-being of the population and quality of life were considered,it would reveal how much Brazil is losing,even though a few companies and decision makers may still be turning profits.
According to Dockery and Pope,10the establishment of emission standards implies the existence of a limit below which there would be no harm to health.However,in reality,the response is linear,and there is no safe lower limit of these pollutants in terms of human health.
Despite ample scientific evidence,no strong concern has been shown for human health and its sensitivity to pollution.In Brazil,we have been using outdated standards that do not follow the international trend.Moreover,we have adopted policies that encourage the purchase of vehicles and,thus,are inadequate to solve transportation problems.At the same time,the use of diesel fuel,which causes less pollution,has been postponed.In conclusion,Brazil needs to change its emission standards and adopt policies that address the awareness,expansion and improvement of public transportation.
The present review highlights the inappropriate nature of decisions made by public institutions regarding the estab-lishment of public policies related to pollution,which are dissociated from the reality demonstrated by scientific evidence.Therefore,the authors of this report seek to draw the attention of Brazilian decision makers toward imple-menting changes in the public and political measures adopted on this topic.Epidemiological studies need to be understood and used as the basis for defining these public policies with the aim of improving the quality of life among the target population.Education,awareness and concern are allies in the adoption of appropriate public policies.Of the 113Brazilian and non-Brazilian articles that were analyzed in the present review,only 4papers did not find an association between pollution and health.This suggests that there may be a publication bias.Such a bias would consist of a tendency for researchers,reviewers and editors to only submit or accept papers that follow the direction of the hypothesis that they wish to prove.It is important and necessary to avoid publication biases,both from the point of view of the universal nature of scientific knowledge and of meta-analysis studies.Decisions regarding treatments,medications placed on the market and many
medical
Figure 2-Percentage increase interval (CI 95%)from selected non-Brazilian studies of air pollution and adverse human health outcomes.
CLINICS 2011;66(4):681-690
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Olmo NRS et al.
situations and public health decisions are based on research.14However,there is strong evidence supporting the association between atmospheric pollution by vehicles and adverse effects on human health.
The tables presenting the summarized data from the papers selected not only show the cause-effect relationship between atmospheric pollution and harm to human health but also indicate which of the selected studies effectively led to attitudes being adopted in terms of public policy.From the perspective of proposals for public policy,there is a gap between the science and the policy makers because even the studies that mention public policy do not actually suggest proposals for reducing atmospheric pollution.
By bringing together studies from several parts of the world,including Brazil,it can be seen that their results trend in the same direction.The studies were able to answer the essential questions proposed in the present study,namely:Is there any epidemiological evidence for adverse effects of atmospheric pollution on human health?Do these effects occur even at concentrations that are lower than the maximum permitted levels?Was there any concern in these reports about outlining public policy measures that would restrict emissions?The present work produced clear answers to these questions.There is epidemiological evidence for the negative effects of atmospheric pollution on human health,and these effects can be observed even after exposure to emission levels that are below the established legal levels in Brazil.The most-affected population comprises so-called susceptible indivi-duals (children,the elderly and individuals with heart disease or asthma).Few reports specifically mentioned public health policy,but it seems that mentioning such policies is more frequent in Brazilian studies than in non-Brazilian ones.The Brazilian model for individual transportation is failing,and there is a need to prioritize and modernize the public transportation system.Even if public health were not an issue,the time wasted in traffic jams should be a motivating factor for adopting new public policies and changing the habits of the population.Thus,the immobili-zation of urban centers will force decision makers and people living in the city to become aware of these issues.The adoption of more efficient public policies is essential for the reduction of current emission standards for air pollutants.These measures cannot continue to accommo-date an increasing number of vehicles.Instead,epidemiol-ogy should be seen as a science advocating the adoption of stricter standards for air emissions as well as education of the population involved,thereby giving legitimacy to its decisions.Thus,policies on education,awareness and mandatory investments in the automotive sector and in public transportation are of paramount importance to accomplish this goal.Internationally,priority is given to scientific information and to active public participation,not only as consumers but also as an essential part of the quality of life,both present and future.Such participation requires the adoption of integrated measures based on the popula-tion and the
government.
Figure 3-Percentage increase interval (CI 95%)from Brazilian studies of air pollution and adverse human health outcomes.
A review of low-level air pollution and adverse effects on human health Olmo NRS et al.
CLINICS 2011;66(4):681-690
Therefore,we hope that this work can serve as the basis for a dynamic and responsible decision-making process.We also hope that it can be used to establish public policies that are not only theoretically ideal but also equally efficient regarding human health.
CONCLUSION
This review made it possible to extrapolate conclusions from the individual and independent results of each study analyzed,identifying coherent data that can be used for developing public guidelines and for future planning.The present study used scientific data based on epidemiological studies that were produced both within the Brazilian sphere and in other countries.It showed that,even when atmospheric pollutants are within legally established limits,they can be harmful to health.This harm leads to additional expenses for public health services and,ulti-mately,for the government,which is responsible for ensuring the quality of life of the population and assuring the right to healthcare.
The concept of co-benefits of pollution control is becoming increasingly relevant and is taking on the role of a guiding principle because there must be synergy between the measures aimed at the mitigation of emissions and those aimed at improving public health.These concepts are constantly interlinking the fields of healthcare and law and can lead to public policies based upon scientifically verified results.Such policies always aim toward a better quality of life and increased well-being of the population.
The aim of this study was not to explain the pathophy-siology of the comorbidities caused by exposure to air pollutants.However,considering the harmful effects that have already been reported in epidemiological studies(such as those that were part of this systematic review,listed in Tables1and2),we discussed the need for the application of these data by decision makers to allow for the proper adjustment of legislation in support of human health.Thus, epidemiological studies were used as a tool to demonstrate the objective of this paper,namely the need for an interrelationship between health and epidemiology in the shaping of Brazilian public policy.
Finally,we suggest an interface between science and Brazilian public policy involving intersectoral attempts to protect our most important asset,human health.
This study was supported by the Laboratory of Medical Investigations(LIM05-FMUSP)and FAPESP(Research Support Foundation of the State of Sa?o Paulo). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the LIM05-FMUSP(Laboratory for Medical Investigations of the University of Sa?o Paulo)for its unwavering support and to the Research Support Foundation of the State of Sa?o Paulo (FAPESP)for the study bursary that made this work possible. REFERENCES
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CLINICS2011;66(4):681-690
(生产管理知识)制剂生产过程中常见问题和处理方法
制剂生产过程中常见问题和处理方法 一、质量问题 制剂生产过程由于种种原因造成制剂的质量不合格，尤其是在片剂生产中，造成片剂质量问题的因素更多。现仅对片剂、胶囊剂及注射剂生产中可能产生质量问题的原因及解决方法作介绍。 （一）片剂生产过程中可能发生问题的分析及解决方法 1.松片 片剂压成后，硬度不够，表面有麻孔，用手指轻轻加压即碎裂，原因分析及解决方法： ①药物粉碎细度不够、纤维性或富有弹性药物或油类成分含量较多而混合不均匀。可将药物粉碎过100目筛、选用黏性较强的黏合剂、适当增加压片机的压力、增加油类药物吸收剂充分混匀等方法加以克服。 ②黏合剂或润湿剂用量不足或选择不当，使颗粒质地疏松或颗粒粗细分布不匀，粗粒与细粒分层。可选用适当黏合剂或增加用量、改进制粒工艺、多搅拌软材、混均颗粒等方法加以克服。 ③颗粒含水量太少，过分干燥的颗粒具有较大的弹性、含有结晶水的药物在颗粒干燥过程中失去较多的结晶水，使颗粒松脆，容易松裂片。故在制粒时，按不同品种应控制颗粒的含水量。如制成的颗粒太干时，可喷入适量稀乙醇（50%—60%），混匀后压片。 ④药物本身的性质。密度大压出的片剂虽有一定的硬度，但经不起碰撞和震摇。如次硝酸铋片、苏打片等往往易产生松片现象；密
度小，流动性差，可压性差，重新制粒。 ⑤颗粒的流动性差，填入模孔的颗粒不均匀。 ⑥有较大块或颗粒、碎片堵塞刮粒器及下料口，影响填充量。 ⑦压片机械的因素。压力过小，多冲压片机冲头长短不齐，车速过快或加料斗中颗粒时多时少。可调节压力、检查冲模是否配套完整、调整车速、勤加颗粒使料斗内保持一定的存量等方法克服。 2.裂片 片剂受到震动或经放置时，有从腰间裂开的称为腰裂；从顶部裂开的称为顶裂，腰裂和顶裂总称为裂片，原因分析及解决方法： ①药物本身弹性较强、纤维性药物或因含油类成分较多。可加入糖粉以减少纤维弹性，加强黏合作用或增加油类药物的吸收剂，充分混匀后压片。 ②黏合剂或润湿剂不当或用量不够，颗粒在压片时粘着力差。 ③颗粒太干、含结晶水药物失去过多造成裂片，解决方法与松片相同。 ④有些结晶型药物，未经过充分的粉碎。可将此类药物充分粉碎后制粒。 ⑤细粉过多、润滑剂过量引起的裂片，粉末中部分空气不能及时逸出而被压在片剂内，当解除压力后，片剂内部空气膨胀造成裂片，可筛去部分细粉与适当减少润滑剂用量加以克服。 ⑥压片机压力过大，反弹力大而裂片；车速过快或冲模不符合要求，冲头有长短，中部磨损，其中部大于上下部或冲头向内卷边，
外国音乐史
浪漫主义时期 从十九世纪初到二十世纪初统称为浪漫主义音乐时期 浪漫主义的特征：a有强烈的主观性和个性要求b将情感和想象的表现放在首位c自传使得手法和自我为中心的感受占据主导地位d热忠于爱情主题和崇拜大自然e“回归到世纪”企图从现实中隐退f重视民间文艺艺术，追求浓郁的民族色彩。 浪漫主义兴起的原因：音乐表演家和作曲家日益发展的个人主义倾向，他们追求个性的表现，创作有枪列的主观色彩，着重于个人的“自我”的生活体验和内心世界的描绘，喜欢以传奇性、虚构性和幻想性的题材和音乐形象来体现他们的艺术理想和生活愿望。 韦伯：歌剧《邀舞》《自由射手》（又名魔弹射手）。韦伯是一位钢琴家，也是同舒伯特是同时代的浪漫主义作曲家，德国真正的浪漫主义民族歌剧的奠基人。他在首演歌剧《奥伯龙》后八星期去世了。 门德尔松：德国作曲家、钢琴家、管风琴家、指挥家。1826年门德尔松创作了成名曲《仲夏夜之梦》序曲。（第三幕）《仲夏夜之梦》《婚礼进行曲》常被人编在一起作为组曲。1892组织16人的合唱队出演《马太受难曲》 在伦敦出演钢琴小品《无词歌》这是他首创的类似歌曲风格的浪漫主义钢琴音乐体裁，旋律优美如歌，音域不宽，和声织体近似歌曲伴奏，曲式结构短小简洁，像无词歌的艺术歌曲。他的作品特点：精美华丽，雅俗共赏。 e小调小提琴协奏曲 舒曼：（代表浪漫主义成熟时期）德国作曲家、钢琴家、指挥家、音乐评论家。 大卫同盟：舒曼于1834年在莱比锡创办了《新音乐报》这是当时进步音乐思想的喉舌，每周一次，署名为“艺术家与艺术之友协会”即”大为同盟”。其宗旨是与音乐庸人作斗争。肖邦：波兰作曲家、钢琴家。钢琴诗人之称。 他运用丰富而变化的不同音色，有鲜明的对比词汇和创新的技法 音乐成就：1、音乐包含民族精神。2、他赋予了叙事曲、波兰舞曲、马祖卡舞曲、夜曲等体裁新的意义和表现力。3、他被誉为“钢琴诗人”，是唯一一位只专注于一门乐器创作的音乐家。4、音乐风格织体丰富，打破传统，勇于创新。5、钢琴练习曲加入艺术性。 叙事曲：16世纪末在波兰兴起的悼念爱国英雄的史诗性的民间叙事诗，用弦乐器演唱。 波洛奈兹舞曲：波兰古老的三拍子宫廷礼仪舞曲。 马祖卡舞曲：波兰民间三拍子中庸到快速的舞曲，重音常落在第三拍获第二拍。 夜曲：肖邦最具富于浪漫主义风格特色的作品，即指令人联想夜间情景的作品，兼有夜间抒情、忧郁、沉思、幻想等音乐现的情意，其特点高音部为优美如歌的抒情旋律，有时加以华丽而精致的装饰音，低音部主要运用分解和弦的和声织体和涟漪般流动的琶音伴奏音型，充满着幻想和诗情。 柏辽兹：法国作曲家、指挥家、音乐家。 艺术成就：1、浪漫主义时期标题交响乐的创作者2、摆脱了传统交响曲四个乐章的结构模式3、扩大了乐器配备，把配器法提高到了一门艺术的高度。《管弦乐配器法》被推崇为世人的典范。4、用乐队伴奏声乐套曲《夏夜》 《幻想交响曲》：（副标题：一个艺术家生涯的插曲）罗兰评价：“开创了法国音乐的新时代”。这部作品具有里程碑的意义，开创了浪漫主义标题交响曲新的体裁形式，为法国音乐文化发展开拓款过的领域。 固定乐思：各个乐章由一个类似的主导动机的基本主题联系起来。（法文原意：固定意念、格言主题，即在乐曲中多次出现的主题和变形。） 主要作品：带合唱的戏剧交响曲《罗密欧与朱丽叶》；序曲《李尔王》、《罗马狂欢节》；戏剧
制剂生产过程中常见问题和处理方法
生产过程中常见问题和处理方法 一、质量问题 制剂生产过程由于种种原因造成制剂的质量不合格，尤其是在片剂生产中，造成片剂质量问题的因素更多。现仅对片剂、胶囊剂及注射剂生产中可能产生质量问题的原因及解决方法作介绍。 （一）片剂生产过程中可能发生问题的分析及解决方法 1.松片 片剂压成后，硬度不够，表面有麻孔，用手指轻轻加压即碎裂，原因分析及解决方法： ①药物粉碎细度不够、纤维性或富有弹性药物或油类成分含量较多而混合不均匀。可将药物粉碎过100目筛、选用黏性较强的黏合剂、适当增加压片机的压力、增加油类药物吸收剂充分混匀等方法加以克服。 ②黏合剂或润湿剂用量不足或选择不当，使颗粒质地疏松或颗粒粗细分布不匀，粗粒与细粒分层。可选用适当黏合剂或增加用量、改进制粒工艺、多搅拌软材、混均颗粒等方法加以克服。 ； ③颗粒含水量太少，过分干燥的颗粒具有较大的弹性、含有结晶水的药物在颗粒干燥过程中失去较多的结晶水，使颗粒松脆，容易松裂片。故在制粒时，按不同品种应控制颗粒的含水量。如制成的颗粒太干时，可喷入适量稀乙醇（50%—60%），混匀后压片。 ④药物本身的性质。密度大压出的片剂虽有一定的硬度，但经不起碰撞和震摇。如次硝酸铋片、苏打片等往往易产生松片现象；密度小，流动性差，可压性差，重新制粒。 ⑤颗粒的流动性差，填入模孔的颗粒不均匀。 ⑥有较大块或颗粒、碎片堵塞刮粒器及下料口，影响填充量。 ⑦压片机械的因素。压力过小，多冲压片机冲头长短不齐，车速过快或加料斗中颗粒时多时少。可调节压力、检查冲模是否配套完整、调整车速、勤加颗粒使料斗内保持一定的存量等方法克服。 2.裂片 片剂受到震动或经放置时，有从腰间裂开的称为腰裂；从顶部裂开的称为顶裂，腰裂和顶裂总称为裂片，原因分析及解决方法： ①药物本身弹性较强、纤维性药物或因含油类成分较多。可加入糖粉以减少纤维弹性，加强黏合作用或增加油类药物的吸收剂，充分混匀后压片。 ②黏合剂或润湿剂不当或用量不够，颗粒在压片时粘着力差。 ③颗粒太干、含结晶水药物失去过多造成裂片，解决方法与松片相同。 ④有些结晶型药物，未经过充分的粉碎。可将此类药物充分粉碎后制粒。 ⑤细粉过多、润滑剂过量引起的裂片，粉末中部分空气不能及时逸出而被压在片剂内，当解除压力后，片剂内部空气膨胀造成裂片，可筛去部分细粉与适当减少润滑剂用量加以克服。 ⑥压片机压力过大，反弹力大而裂片；车速过快或冲模不符合要求，冲头有长短，中部磨损，其中部大于上下部或冲头向内卷边，均可使片剂顶出时造成裂片。可调节压力与车速，改进冲模配套，及时检查调换。 ⑦压片室室温低、湿度低，易造成裂片，特别是黏性差的药物容易产生。调节空调系统可以解决。 3.粘冲与吊冲
管弦乐队的配器弦乐组的色彩
管弦乐队的配器弦乐组的色彩弦乐组的色彩手段： 在管弦乐队的配器中，弦乐组是基础，他的色彩手段有： –弦乐的拨弦(Pizz) 弦乐器的拨弦发音短促，尤其在他的高音区，音色发干，音响共鸣小，而 中低音区的音色却非常结实，浑厚，共鸣好。弦乐器拨弦有以下几种结合形式： 1：拨弦与拉弦相结合，这种形式多用在大提琴和倍大提琴上，一般是倍大提琴的拨弦重复大提琴演奏的旋律从而达到使大提琴的旋律线条清晰节奏明快 的目的。在高音弦乐器上也可以用一部分乐器拨弦与另一部分乐器的拉奏相结合，一加强旋律的轻快，明朗感。 2：拨弦乐器有木管长音相结合会使音响清脆明亮，先敲击小钟一般，拨弦与长音的重复可以采用声部完全或不完全的重叠形式，也可以采用在不同音层 上重叠的形试。 3：有拨弦可以模拟民间乐器。 –弓杆击奏法(Col Legno) 他的音响干涩刺耳，这种方法用的不多，有的时候可以产生一种恐怖的音响：将拉弦奏法，拨弦奏法及弓杆击奏法结合，粗糙干枯的音响给人一种生硬，冷酷，目无一切的音乐形象。 –*琴马奏法(Sul ponticello) 这样的奏法音色粗糙，沙哑，缺乏光彩和优美的音响。 –使用弱音器(Con Sord)
弦乐加了弱音器后，是优美明亮的音色变得暗淡而朦胧，有蒙上一层纱的 感觉，给人一种忧闷而神秘的感觉。 –泛音奏法 泛音的音响清晰，音色飘渺似笛声，利用泛音一方面可以扩大乐队的音域，还可以表现宁静，遥远的意境。 –独奏的应用(Solo) 在乐队中，弦乐器独奏有三种表现意义，1：为了突出具有独特风格的，并有高度演奏技巧的乐句，2：独奏与乐队的全奏达到具有鲜明的音响对比，3： 为了完成某一音乐形象的刻划。 使用独奏应当注意独奏乐句与伴奏声部在音区，音色上的关系以及各种乐 器的配合，选择等。一般情况下，当独奏乐器出现时，铜管乐器最好要避免， 伴奏织体在音区上应远离独奏声部。 –分部奏(div.) 弦乐组分部奏以后，可以独立成为一个完整的纯音色织体结构，利用弦乐 的分部奏可以创造出光彩夺目，变换无穷的管弦音响色彩。 木管组的色彩手段： 木管组的每一件乐器在音响色彩上是各不相同的，总的来说，长笛有明朗，活跃，悠扬的特点，双簧管富有歌唱性或田园风格的特点，单簧管的灵活性与 强弱对比变化能产生戏剧性的效果，大管具备诙谐而富于弹跳性的能力，要充 分利用木管乐器这些表现能力，利用他们不同的音响色调，在创作中组织各种 音响关系，产生出丰富多样的管弦色彩。 –跳跃性的对照：他是木管乐器的一大特点，因为跳跃的音程对于木管乐 器吹奏来讲是比较稳定可*的，不同音区又有不同的音色变化，这是弦乐和铜管不能相比的。 –色彩性的和弦变换：
片剂裂片、松片解决办法
片剂生产松片、裂片、粘冲与吊冲、片重差异超限的原因 及解决方案 在药品生产的一线，常常会遇到各种各样的小问题，而就是这些细节，往往能影响产品的质量水准。本文从实际经验出发，对于片剂 生产中出现的“病症”给与诊断分析，并给出了详实“处方”。希 望能给一线生产人员提供一定的帮助。 1：病症：松片，即片剂压成后，硬度不够，表面有麻孔，用手指轻 轻加压即碎裂。 处方： ①药物粉碎细度不够、纤维性或富有弹性药物或油类成分含量较多 而混合不均匀。可将药物粉碎过100目筛、选用黏性较强的黏合剂、适当增加压片机的压力、增加油类药物吸收剂充分混匀等方法加以 克服。 ②黏合剂或润湿剂用量不足或选择不当，使颗粒质地疏松或颗粒粗 细分布不匀，粗粒与细粒分层。可选用适当黏合剂或增加用量、改 进制粒工艺、多搅拌软材、混均颗粒等方法加以克服。 ③颗粒含水量太少，过分干燥的颗粒具有较大的弹性、含有结晶水 的药物在颗粒干燥过程中失去较多的结晶水，使颗粒松脆，容易松 裂片。故在制粒时，按不同品种应控制颗粒的含水量。如制成的颗 粒太干时，可喷入适量稀乙醇（50%- 60%），混匀后压片。 ④药物本身的性质。密度大压出的片剂虽有一定的硬度，但经不起 碰撞和震摇。如次硝酸铋片、苏打片等往往易产生松片现象；密度小，流动性差，可压性差，重新制粒。 ⑤颗粒的流动性差，填入模孔的颗粒不均匀。 ⑥有较大块或颗粒、碎片堵塞刮粒器及下料口，影响填充量。 ⑦压片机械的因素。压力过小，多冲压片机冲头长短不齐，车速过 快或加料斗中颗粒时多时少。可调节压力、检查冲模是否配套完整、调整车速、勤加颗粒使料斗内保持一定的存量等方法克服。 2：病症：裂片，即片剂受到震动或经放置时，从腰间裂开的称为腰裂；顶部裂开的称为顶裂，腰裂和顶裂总称为裂片。
BEYOND乐队简介素材
与当今“教师”一称最接近的“老师”概念，最早也要追溯至宋元时期。金代元好问《示侄孙伯安》诗云：“伯安入小学，颖悟非凡貌，属句有夙性，说字惊老师。”于是看，宋元时期小学教师被称为“老师”有案可稽。清代称主考官也为“老师”，而一般学堂里的先生则称为“教师”或“教习”。可见，“教师”一说是比较晚的事了。如今体会，“教师”的含义比之“老师”一说，具有资历和学识程度上较低一些的差别。辛亥革命后，教师与其他官员一样依法令任命，故又称“教师”为“教员”。BEYOND乐队 要练说，得练听。听是说的前提，听得准确，才有条件正确模仿，才能不断地掌握高一级水平的语言。我在教学中，注意听说结合，训练幼儿听的能力，课堂上，我特别重视教师的语言，我对幼儿说话，注意声音清楚，高低起伏，抑扬有致，富有吸引力，这样能引起幼儿的注意。当我发现有的幼儿不专心听别人发言时，就随时表扬那些静听的幼儿，或是让他重复别人说过的内容，抓住教育时机，要求他们专心听，用心记。平时我还通过各种趣味活动，培养幼儿边听边记，边听边想，边听边说的能力，如听词对词，听词句说意思，听句子辩正误，听故事讲述故事，听谜语猜谜底，听智力故事，动脑筋，出主意，听儿歌上句，接儿歌下句等，这样幼儿学得生动活泼，轻松愉快，
既训练了听的能力，强化了记忆，又发展了思维，为说打下了基础。 要练说，先练胆。说话胆小是幼儿语言发展的障碍。不少幼儿当众说话时显得胆怯：有的结巴重复，面红耳赤；有的声音极低，自讲自听；有的低头不语，扯衣服，扭身子。总之，说话时外部表现不自然。我抓住练胆这个关键，面向全体，偏向差生。一是和幼儿建立和谐的语言交流关系。每当和幼儿讲话时，我总是笑脸相迎，声音亲切，动作亲昵，消除幼儿畏惧心理，让他能主动的、无拘无束地和我交谈。二是注重培养幼儿敢于当众说话的习惯。或在课堂教学中，改变过去老师讲学生听的传统的教学模式，取消了先举手后发言的约束，多采取自由讨论和谈话的形式，给每个幼儿较多的当众说话的机会，培养幼儿爱说话敢说话的兴趣，对一些说话有困难的幼儿，我总是认真地耐心地听，热情地帮助和鼓励他把话说完、说好，增强其说话的勇气和把话说好的信心。三是要提明确的说话要求，在说话训练中不断提高，我要求每个幼儿在说话时要仪态大方，口齿清楚，声音响亮，学会用眼神。对说得好的幼儿，即使是某一方面，我都抓住教育，提出表扬，并要其他幼儿模仿。长期坚持，不断训练，幼儿说话胆量也在不断提高。 观察内容的选择，我本着先静后动，由近及远的原则，有目的、有计划的先安排与幼儿生活接近的，能理解的观察内容。随机观察也是不可少的，是相当有趣的，如蜻蜓、蚯蚓、毛毛虫等，孩子一边观察，一边提问，兴趣很浓。我提供的观察对象，注意形象逼真，色彩鲜明，大小适中，引导幼儿多角度多层面地进行观察，保证每个幼儿
传统管弦乐中基本配器理论
传统管弦乐中基本配器理论 管弦乐队配器是相当大的课题，是音乐创作四大件之一，在这里只做一些简单介绍。大体上管弦乐队配器可分为乐器法和配器法两个部分。乐器法是了解管弦乐队中每种乐器的性能，包括这种乐器的音域、演奏法、各个音区的音色、力度等。配器法是指这种乐器在管弦乐队中可以扮演的“角色”，以及如何根据它的性能和特点为它安排“任务”。 一般的管弦乐队总谱，都是把乐器分为四个组。在总谱由上 至下排列的分别是木管乐器组(Woodwi nds)、铜管乐器组 ( Brass )、打击色彩乐器组( Percussion )以及弦乐器组 ( Strings )。这是它们的排列 一、木管组乐器 1．长笛( Flute )。长笛是吹管乐器，使用时应注意为其留下换气的时间。长笛可以演奏快速的半音阶、琶音以及颤音、震音等。 2．短笛( Piccolo )。短笛的音色尖锐有力，一般只在乐队强奏时使用。通常把它用来重复加强长笛声部。 3.双簧管(Oboe)。双簧管擅长演奏慢速而悠长的乐句，极其婉转优美。一般不用它演奏快速的震音、颤音等。 4.单簧管( Clarinette )。单簧管可以演奏各种不同情绪的音乐。单簧管反应灵敏，演奏快速的经过句、震音、颤音等都 没有问题。
5.大管（Bassoon）。大管表现力丰富，可以演奏旋律性乐句，也可以胜任跳跃性低音。 二、铜管组乐器 1.圆号（Horn）。圆号在乐队中，圆号不但可以担任独奏，还是重要的和声乐器。四支圆号按照和声关系排列起来，音色统一而丰满。 2.小号（Trumpet ）。小号强奏时明亮辉煌，极具穿透力。 3.长号（Trumbone）。长号又叫伸缩管，靠伸缩号管长度 4.大号（Tuba）。大号的反应很灵敏，快速级进和比较大的跳进都能演奏，甚至有大号演奏的《野蜂飞舞》。 三、打击色彩乐器 1.有音高的打击乐器 （1）定音鼓（Timpani ）。定音鼓有两种常见的演奏方法：单击和滚奏。定音鼓力度范围很大，从ppp 到fff 的力度都可以演奏。 （2）仿键盘打击乐器。这类的乐器有木琴、铝板琴（也叫颤音琴）、钟琴等。使用这些音色时，应注意考虑它们的实际演奏情况。。 （3）排钟（Campane。也称为管钟。它的发音不太准确， 往往在乐曲高潮处或描写某些宏伟场面的时候使用 2.无音高的打击乐器
片剂裂片的原因及解决方法
片剂裂片得原因及解决方法 片剂受到震动或经放置后从腰间裂开称“裂片”,从顶部脱落一层称“顶裂”、其产生原因及解决办法为: 1、压片物料细粉过多,或颗粒过粗、过细;或原料为针、片状结晶,且结晶过大,粘合剂未进入晶体内部引起裂片,可采用与松片相同得处理方法医学教育`网搜集整理。 2、颗粒中油类成分较多或药物含纤维成分较多时易引起裂片,可分别加用吸收剂或糖粉克服。 3、颗粒过干或药物失去过多结晶水引起裂片,可喷洒适量稀乙醇湿润,或与含水量较大得颗粒掺合后压片。 4、冲模不合要求,如模圈因磨擦而造成中间孔径大于口部直径,片剂顶出时易裂片、冲头摩损向内卷边,上冲与模圈不吻合,压力不均匀,使片剂部分受压过大而造成顶裂,可更换冲模解决、 5、压力过大,或车速过快,颗粒中空气未逸出造成裂片,可调节压力或减慢车速克服。 一:松片 松片就是压片时经常遇到得问题,会影响压片与包衣。松片主要与颗粒质量、压片机运行有密切得关系、颗粒质量就是压好片子得关键,因此,制粒工艺对于片剂质量尤为重要。影响颗粒质量得因素主要有以下几方面: 1. 中药材成分得影响、如有些中药材中含有大量得纤维成分。由于这些药材弹性大、黏性小,致使颗粒松散、片子硬度低、对此,在实际操作中可采用适宜得溶媒及方法,将此类药材中得有效成分提取浓缩,再进行颗粒制备,以降低颗粒弹性,提高可压性,进而提高片剂硬度;对含油脂量大得药材,压片亦易引起松片,如果这些油脂属有效成分,制粒时应加入适量吸收剂(如碳酸钙)等来吸油,如果这些油脂为无效成分,可用压榨法或其她脱脂法脱脂,减少颗粒油量,增加其内聚力,从而提高片子硬度。 ２. 中药材粉碎度得影响。如果中药材细粉不够细,制成得颗粒黏结性不强,易使片剂松散。因此,药粉要具有一定细度,这就是制好颗粒、压好药片得前提。 ３。黏合剂与湿润剂得影响。黏合剂与湿润剂在制粒中占有重要地位,其品种得选择与用量正确与否,都直接影响颗粒质量。选择黏合剂、湿润剂应视药粉性质而定,如就是全生药粉压片,应选择黏性强得黏合剂,如就是全浸膏压片,而浸膏粉中树脂黏液质成分较多,则必须选用８0％以上浓度得乙醇作湿润剂。黏合剂用量太少,则颗粒细粉过多,会产生松片。 ４、颗粒中水分得影响。颗粒中得水分对片剂有很大影响,适量得水分能增加脆碎粒子得塑性变形,减少弹性,有利于压片,而过干得颗粒弹性大、塑性小,难以被压成片。但如果含水量太高,也会使药片松软,甚至黏冲或堵塞料斗,从而影响压片。故每一种中药片剂其颗粒含水量必须控制在适宜范围。 另外,如果由于压片机运行时压力不足、压片机运行转速过快、冲头长短不齐而出现松片现象,可适当调大压力或减慢转速、更换冲头、如压力足够而仍出现松片现象,则应考虑其她原因,切勿强加压力,以免损害压片机。 二:裂片
20首励志歌曲
励志歌曲是一场催人折腰的美丽哀愁，实际上不过是一段成长的痕迹。励志歌曲有哪些?下面给大家分享了关于二十首最棒的励志歌曲，希望你喜欢。 二十首最棒的励志歌曲 1、隐形的翅膀 经典歌词：整首歌都是经典，词写的太好了 2006年张邵涵继后又一励志大作，北大校长曾与学生同唱歌。 2、《今天》 这是我每次去KTV必点的一首歌，歌曲表达了成功之路并不是一帆风顺，挫折、失败、自卑都不应该是前进的绊脚石，跨越过去，就可能会成功。 3、《壮志在我胸》 这是一首经典励志歌曲，歌曲荡气回肠，表达了人生应不畏艰难，勇往直前的精神。 4、海阔天空 (不是beyond，也不是张惠妹的，是信乐团的喔，很大气的一首歌) (基本也都是经典……) 凌晨的窗口失眠整夜以后看着黎明从云里抬起了头日落是沉潜日出是成熟只要是光一定会灿烂的 海阔天空在勇敢以后要拿执着将命运的锁打破冷漠的人谢谢你们曾经看轻我让我不低头更精采的活 5、最初的梦想 范范翻唱中岛美雪经典励志歌曲，歌词如下：把眼泪装在心上会开出勇敢的花 可以在疲惫的时光闭上眼睛闻到一种芬芳就像好好睡了一夜直到天亮又能边走着边哼着歌用轻快的步伐 沮丧时总会明显感到孤独的重量多渴望懂得的人给些温暖借个肩膀很高兴一路上我们的默契那么长穿过风又绕个弯心还连着像往常一样 6、《男儿当自强》 《男儿当自强》，好男人自当自强不息，这首歌将男人的拼搏的精神表达的淋漓尽致，也成为众多影视作品引用的经典作品。听了这歌可以坚持每天做五十个俯卧撑。 7、《真心英雄》
同样一首经典歌曲，成为学生晚会压轴唱的最多的一首歌。另类四大天王深情演绎KTV点播榜首歌曲 8、《爱拼才会赢》 激励意义从歌名就可以看出，KTV点播率很高的一首。 9、《中国人》 刘德华的一首《中国人》唱出了中国人的气势，每当听到这首歌总是让人不禁激动，为中国人自豪，为中国人骄傲。10、《光辉岁月》伴随着一首《光辉岁月》，我们走过了青春岁月，激情的呐喊让我们的记忆永远停留在那个拥有家驹的年代。 11、逃亡 (是燕姿的，你也许听过，已经在我MP3里待了三年拉) 我站在靠近天的顶端张开手全都释放 用月光取暖给自己力量才发现关于梦的答案一直在自己手上 只有自己能让自己发光 12、怒放的生命(汪峰，内地搞摇滚的) 曾经多少次跌倒在路上曾经多少次折断过翅膀如今我已不再感到彷徨我想超越这平凡的生活 我想要怒放的生命就象矗立在彩虹之颠就象穿行璀璨的星河拥有超越平凡的力量 13、我要的世界 人生会有疲惫想放弃的时候看不清路的尽头天使身后 太阳照醒希望的翅膀那是未来伸出的双手失去过相信的力量再艰难的旅途也要骄傲的走过 眼前的世界音乐演奏中不停挑战我就算曾悲伤过我要的世界梦想在怀中 未来呼唤我相信我会坚强的走到最后 14、一起走到 在我心中我知道这是永恒的长跑好不容易来到这里明天还要追更多荣耀把自己角色扮演好全力以赴每一秒 和我的家人和我的朋友向着目标手牵手一起走到 15、神说
《管弦乐配法》主要参考文献
《管弦乐配器法》主要参考文献 A. 中文参考书目 一。音乐声学类 李万海：《录音音响学》，中国电影出版社， 1982年版 梁广程：《乐声的奥秘》，人民音乐出版社， 1986年版 朱起东：《音乐声学基础》，上海音乐出版社， 1988年版 龚镇雄：《音乐声学》，电子工业出版社，1995年版 二。乐器法及配器法类 N. 里姆斯基－柯萨科夫：《管弦乐法原理》，万叶书店，1952年版 G . 雅戈：《管弦乐法》，万叶书店，1953 年版 E. 普劳特：《管弦乐法教程》，音乐出版社，1955年版 C. 维多尔与 D. 罗加尔－列维茨基：《现代乐器学》，人民音乐出版社，1958年 W. 辟斯顿：《配器法》，上海文艺出版社，1962年版 C. 瓦西连科：《交响配器法》，人民音乐出版社，1962/63年版 中央音乐学院编：《民族乐队乐器法》，音乐出版社，1963年版 H. 柏辽兹－R. 施特劳斯：《配器法》上册，人民音乐出版社，1978年版 德. 罗加尔－列维茨基：《管弦乐队讲话》，人民音乐出版社，1980年版 I. 加拉米扬：《小提琴演奏与教学的原则》，人民音乐出版社，1981年版 胡登跳：《民族管弦乐法》，上海文艺出版社，1982年版 张宏俊：《长笛的泛音》，载《音乐艺术》1983年第3 期 德. 罗加尔－列维茨基：《现代管弦乐队》，人民音乐出版社，1984年版
乐声：《西洋乐器》，轻工业出版社，1984年版 田进勤：《电子乐器》，人民邮电出版社，1984年版 H. K. 沃尔夫：《从晚期浪漫派到现代管弦乐法的发展概述》，载《近现代音乐研文集》，中国音乐家协会辽宁分会编，1985年版 朱起东：《圆号和它的特殊演奏法》，载《音乐艺术》 1985年第 2期 H. 伯夫：《圆号创新教学法》，人民音乐出版社，1987年版 施咏康：《管弦乐队乐器法》，人民音乐出版社，1987年版 人民音乐出版社编辑部编：《电子乐器译文集》，人民音乐出版社，1988年版 朱起东：《小号表演艺术》，上海音乐出版社，1992年版 丹尼斯. 维克：《长号吹奏技巧》，人民音乐出版社，1993年版 牟洪：《管弦乐队配器法》，人民音乐出版社，1999年版 三。其它 L . 坡林：《声音与意义－诗学概论》 罗曼. 罗兰：《现代音乐家评传》，上海群益出版社，1950年版 W . 辟斯顿：《和声学》，音乐出版社，1956年版 L . 玛采尔：《论旋律》，音乐出版社，1958年版 《乐记－乐本篇》，载《中国美学史资料汇编》，中华书局，1980年版 C. 波汶、B. 冯. 梅克编：《我的音乐生活》，人民音乐出版社，1982年版 P. H. 朗格：《十九世纪西方音乐文化史》，人民音乐出版社，1982年版 黛敏郎：《关于“涅磐”交响曲》，载中央音乐学院《外国音乐参考资料》，1983年第2－3期 F. 魏因迦特纳：《论贝多芬交响曲的演出》，人民音乐出版社，1984年版 Y. 秋林：《论音乐的写法》，人民音乐出版社，1984年版 陈铭志：《赋格曲写作》，上海音乐出版社，1980年版 I . 斯波索宾：《曲式学》，上海文艺出版社，1986年新二版
片剂及其生产过程中常见问题和处理方法
片剂及其生产过程中常见问题和处理方法
片剂及其生产过程中常见问题和处理方法 于亮1 马飞2 （1.山东聊城建设学校，山东聊城252000；2.聊城万合工业制造有限公司，山东聊城252022） 摘要：通过对片剂及片剂生产过程中可能出现的问题和处理方法简单介绍，阐述了片剂生产过程中造成质量问题的诸多因素，为保证片剂质量提供了一些解决和预防的办法和经验。 关键词：片剂；片重超差；问题；处理方法 1 片剂 片剂可定义为用压制或模制的方法制成的含药物的固体制剂，可用稀释剂，也可不用。从19世纪后期开始片剂已经广泛使用并一直深受欢迎，到19世纪末随着压片设备的出现和不断改进，片剂的生产和应用得到了迅速的发展。近十几年来，片剂生产技术与机械设备方面也有较大的发展，如沸腾制粒、全粉末直接压片、半薄膜包衣、新辅料、新工艺等。总之，目前片剂已成为品种多、产量大、用途广，使用和贮运方便，质量稳定的剂型之一，片剂在中国以及其他许多国家的药典所收载的制剂总量中，均占1/3以上，可见应用之广。 1.1 片剂的特点 1.1.1 片剂的优点 (1)一般情况下片剂的溶出速率及生物利用度较丸剂好； (2)剂量准确，片剂内药物含量差异较小； (3)质量稳定，片剂为干燥固体，且某些易氧化变质及潮解的药物可借包衣加以保护，所以光线、空气、水分等对其影响较小； (4)携带、运输、服用较为方便； (5)可实现机械化生产，产量大，成本低，卫生标准也容易达到。 1.1.2 片剂的缺点 (1)片剂中药物的溶出速率较散剂及胶囊剂慢，其生物利用度稍差些； (2)儿童和昏迷病人不易吞服； (3)含挥发性成分的片剂贮存较久时含量下降。
我最喜欢的乐队
《我最喜欢的乐队》 Beyond是我最喜欢的乐队。Beyond是一支来自于中国香港的著名摇滚乐队，该乐队成立于1983年，于2005年正式解散。“Beyond”的中文意思为“超越”,乐队属于原创型，其作品以写实为主。这支乐队的成员是：黄家驹、黄家强、黄贯中、叶世荣。这4个成员中我最喜欢的就是黄家驹——该乐队的灵魂人物。 虽然这支乐队在我未出生时就成立了，在我还不是很懂事的时候就解散了，但是这丝毫没有减弱我对它的喜爱。我相信在座的同学也有很多人喜欢这支乐队，喜欢他们对音乐的热
爱；喜欢他们那富有磁性的歌声；还有他们那不屈不挠的性格。 《大地》、《真的爱你》、《光辉岁月》……这些歌我们耳熟能详的歌曲,特别是《真的爱你》，这首歌可以称得上是他们的主打歌曲，这首歌是黄家驹写给他的母亲的。这首歌的歌词不仅道出了母爱的伟大，更是说出了黄家驹对他母亲的爱。我也正是因为听了这首歌而喜欢上了他，喜欢上了“Beyond”这支乐队。 20世纪90年代初，这支乐队红得发紫。但是天妒英才，1989年Beyond 乐队受邀到日本参加一个综艺节目的时候，黄家驹从舞台上意外摔下
来，经抢救无效，永远的离开了我们。我国电视台播出此新闻的时候，很多喜爱黄家驹的歌迷都不能接受这个事实，有些歌迷更是悲痛欲绝。 领袖人物的突然离开了，并没有使其他成员们放弃自己追求音乐的梦想，他们继续努力，力争实现自我。也许是歌迷都喜欢黄家驹的原因，他们谱写的歌曲达不到黄家驹谱写的水准。由于种种原因，Beyond不得不于1999年对外宣布暂时解散。 2003年，黄贯中、黄家驹、叶世荣为纪念乐队成立二十周年而再次复出，并于同年5月举行了一连五场的演唱会，并取得圆满成功。
乐谱上的音乐术语超完整版
乐谱上的音乐术语超完整版 一：速度 1.慢速类 Lento 约＝52 慢板 Adagio 约＝56 柔板 多用于奏鸣曲中段乐章和浪漫派乐曲抒情乐章 2.中速类 Andante 约＝66 行板 Moderato 约＝88 中速 多用于奏鸣曲中段乐章和浪漫派乐曲抒情乐章 3.快速类 Allegretto 约＝108 小快板 Allegro 约＝132 快板 Presto 约＝184 急板 多用于奏鸣曲1.3乐章和练习曲等 4.速度变化类 rit 渐慢 tempo rubato 自由速度，但总时值符合基本速度（这就是肖邦作品中最难的东西） a tempo 回原速 piu mosso 稍快 meno mosso 稍慢 二.力度1.强和弱 pp 很弱 p 弱 mp 中弱 mf 中强 f 强 ff 很强 sf 突强（贝多芬的典型标记） 2.力度变化 dim 渐弱 morendo 逐渐消失 cresc. 渐强 sempre 始终，一直保持 三.表情 dolce 柔和地 espress. 有表情地 cantabile 歌唱地 grazioso 优美典雅地 mesto 忧郁地.悲伤地dolendo brillante 辉煌地，炫耀地appass. 热情地，激情地scerzando 诙谐，风趣地leggiero 轻巧地 奏法 legato 连奏 non legato 非连奏
stace. 断奏，跳音 gliss 刮奏 踏板 ped 踏板 senza ped 不用踏板 u.c. 左踏板 trec. 中踏板（只有三角钢琴的中踏板在演奏中才有用处） 其他 major 大调 minor 小调 tema 主题 m.d. 右手 m.s. 左手 tr. 颤音 tremolo 震音 D.C. 从头反复（李查德的比较多）solo 独奏 cadenza 华彩 accelerando (accel.) 渐快的 a cappella 无伴奏合唱 absolute music 纯音乐，非标题音乐absolute pitch 绝对音高（听觉）abstract music 抽象音乐 accent 重音 accidental(s) 变音记号 accordion 手风琴 acoustics 声学 action 弦高，即弦距离指板的高度adagietto 小柔板(66拍/分钟) adagio 柔板(56拍/分钟) Added-sixth chord 加六度和弦allegretto 小快板(108拍/分钟) allegro 快板(132拍/分钟) allemande 阿勒曼德 altered chord 变和弦 Andalusia 安达露西亚(西班牙地名) andante 行板(72拍/分钟) andantino 小行板(80拍/分钟) animato 活泼的快板(120拍/分钟) Anti- impressionism 反印象主义anticipation 先现音 anvil 乐砧 Aranjuez 阿兰胡埃斯(吉他协奏曲) aria 咏叹调 arpeggio 琶音 artist 艺术家 ascending 上行 assai 非常快的快板(144拍/分钟)，很Asturias 阿斯图里亚斯(西班牙地名) atonality 无调性 augmentation 展开 augmented sixth chord 增六和弦augmented triad 增三和弦augmented 增（音程） authentic cadence 正格终止 Bach, Johann Sebastian 约翰?塞巴斯第安?巴赫[德国] back 背板 ballata 叙事曲 ballet 芭蕾 band music 军乐 band 军乐队 bar 小节(bar line小节线,measure) bariton 男中音
片剂裂片的原因及解决方法
片剂裂片的原因及解决方法 片剂受到震动或经放置后从腰间裂开称“裂片”，从顶部脱落一层称“顶裂”。其产生原因及解决办法为： 1、压片物料细粉过多，或颗粒过粗、过细；或原料为针、片状结晶，且结晶过大，粘合剂未进入晶体内部引起裂片，可采用与松片相同的处理方法医学教育`网搜集整理。 2、颗粒中油类成分较多或药物含纤维成分较多时易引起裂片，可分别加用吸收剂或糖粉克服。 3、颗粒过干或药物失去过多结晶水引起裂片，可喷洒适量稀乙醇湿润，或与含水量较大的颗粒掺合后压片。 4、冲模不合要求，如模圈因磨擦而造成中间孔径大于口部直径，片剂顶出时易裂片。冲头摩损向内卷边，上冲与模圈不吻合，压力不均匀，使片剂部分受压过大而造成顶裂，可更换冲模解决。 5、压力过大，或车速过快，颗粒中空气未逸出造成裂片，可调节压力或减慢车速克服。 一：松片 松片是压片时经常遇到的问题，会影响压片与包衣。松片主要与颗粒质量、压片机运行有密切的关系。颗粒质量是压好片子的关键，因此，制粒工艺对于片剂质量尤为重要。影响颗粒质量的因素主要有以下几方面：
1. 中药材成分的影响。如有些中药材中含有大量的纤维成分。由于这些药材弹性大、黏性小，致使颗粒松散、片子硬度低。对此，在实际操作中可采用适宜的溶媒及方法，将此类药材中的有效成分提取浓缩，再进行颗粒制备，以降低颗粒弹性，提高可压性，进而提高片剂硬度；对含油脂量大的药材，压片亦易引起松片，如果这些油脂属有效成分，制粒时应加入适量吸收剂(如碳酸钙)等来吸油，如果这些油脂为无效成分，可用压榨法或其他脱脂法脱脂，减少颗粒油量，增加其内聚力，从而提高片子硬度。 2. 中药材粉碎度的影响。如果中药材细粉不够细，制成的颗粒黏结性不强，易使片剂松散。因此，药粉要具有一定细度，这是制好颗粒、压好药片的前提。 3. 黏合剂与湿润剂的影响。黏合剂与湿润剂在制粒中占有重要地位，其品种的选择和用量正确与否，都直接影响颗粒质量。选择黏合剂、湿润剂应视药粉性质而定，如是全生药粉压片，应选择黏性强的黏合剂，如是全浸膏压片，而浸膏粉中树脂黏液质成分较多，则必须选用80％以上浓度的乙醇作湿润剂。黏合剂用量太少，则颗粒细粉过多，会产生松片。 4. 颗粒中水分的影响。颗粒中的水分对片剂有很大影响，适量的水分能增加脆碎粒子的塑性变形，减少弹性，有利于压片，而过干的颗粒弹性大、塑性小，难以被压成片。但如果含水量太高，也会使药片松软，甚至黏冲或堵塞料斗，从而影响压片。故每一种中药片剂
最新7月浙江自考简明配器法试题及答案解析
浙江省2018年7月自考简明配器法试题 课程代码：00732 本试卷分A、B卷，使用1991年版本教材的考生请做A卷，使用2018年版本教材的考生请做B卷；若A、B两卷都做的，以B卷记分。 A卷 一、填空题(本大题共8小题，每空1分，共20分) 请在每小题的空格中填上正确答案。错填、不填均无分。 1.管弦乐法艺术包含着两方面的内容：一是______,二是______。 2.弓弦乐器的构造主要由______；______；______部分组成。 3.小提琴的音域较宽，由最低弦的空弦音______到______约______度。 4.大提琴的常规定弦为第一弦______，第二弦______，第三弦______，第四弦C弦。 5.根据木管乐器管身的形状，可将木管乐器分为两类，第一类是______乐器；第二类是______乐器。 6.双簧管是______调乐器，用______谱表按实际音高记谱。 7.现代管弦乐队应用的小号是降B调乐器，用______谱表提高一个______度记谱，实际发音比记谱音低一 个______度。 8.大提琴中音区音色______、______。 二、名词解释(本大题共6小题，每小题5分，共30分) 9.乐器法 10.分弓 11.层叠法 12.连音吹奏 13.三角铁 14.小型管弦乐队 三、改编题(本大题20分) 将下列钢琴谱片段改编成为弦乐队重奏谱，原有的声部关系保持不变。
四、配器题(本大题30分) 为下列歌曲写作乐队伴奏总谱。 编配要求：乐队编制为：长笛2，双簧管2，单簧管2，大管；圆号4，小号2，长号2；打击乐器由自己根据需要进行选择；第一小提琴，第二小提琴，中提琴，大提琴和低音提琴。
制剂生产过程中常见问题和处理方法doc20
制剂生产过程中常见问题和处 理方法doc20 制剂生产过程中常见问题和处理方法 一、质量问题 制剂生产过程由于种种原因造成制剂的质量不合格，尤其是在片剂生产中，造成片剂质量问题的因素更多。现仅对片剂、胶囊剂及注射剂生产中可能产生质量问题的原因及解决方法作介绍。 （一）片剂生产过程中可能发生问题的分析及解决方法 1.松片 片剂压成后，硬度不够，表面有麻孔，用手指轻轻加压即碎裂， 原因分析及解决方法： ①药物粉碎细度不够、纤维性或富有弹性药物或油类成分含量较多而混合不均匀。可将药物粉碎过100目筛、选用黏性较强的黏合剂、适当增加压片机的压力、增加油类药物吸收剂充分混匀等方法加以克服。
②黏合剂或润湿剂用量不足或选择不当，使颗粒质地疏松或颗粒粗细分布不匀，粗粒与细粒分层。可选用适当黏合剂或增加用量、改进制粒工艺、多搅拌软材、混均颗粒等方法加以克服。 ③颗粒含水量太少，过分干燥的颗粒具有较大的弹性、含有结 晶水的药物在颗粒干燥过程中失去较多的结晶水，使颗粒松脆，容易松裂片。故在制粒时，按不同品种应控制颗粒的含水量。如制成的颗粒太干时，可喷入适量稀乙醇（50汇60%,混匀后压片。 ④药物本身的性质。密度大压出的片剂虽有一定的硬度，但经 不起碰撞和震摇。如次硝酸铋片、苏打片等往往易产生松片现象；密度小，流动性差，可压性差，重新制粒。 ⑤颗粒的流动性差，填入模孔的颗粒不均匀。 ⑥有较大块或颗粒、碎片堵塞刮粒器及下料口，影响填充量。 ⑦压片机械的因素。压力过小，多冲压片机冲头长短不齐，车速过快或加料斗中颗粒时多时少。可调节压力、检查冲模是否配套完整、调整车速、勤加颗粒使料斗内保持一定的存量等方法克服。 2.裂片 片剂受到震动或经放置时，有从腰间裂开的称为腰裂；从顶部裂开的称为顶裂，腰裂和顶裂总称为裂片，原因分析及解决方法： ①药物本身弹性较强、纤维性药物或因含油类成分较多。可加入糖粉以减少纤维弹性，加强黏合作用或增加油类药物的吸收剂，充分混匀后压片。 ②黏合剂或润湿剂不当或用量不够，颗粒在压片时粘着力差。
管弦乐队音乐-弦乐组基础理论与MIDI音序法实战教程——上 Read me
管弦乐配器法与MIDI制作，似乎向来是高等音乐学府里面的神秘知识，一般不为喜欢音乐的朋友们所了解，而写出并且制作出一段大气的好莱坞式的管弦乐或者影视配乐，一直是朋友们心目中的梦想。然而，市场上关于管弦乐MIDI制作与配器的教材是非常少的，而且不成体系，实用性不强。出于这一考虑，我们制作并编写了这套《管弦乐配器法与MIDI制作教程》以献给朋友们。 本教程的内容是非常具有体系性的，是音乐学院教授们的研究成果，可供音乐学院学生，专业音乐人士和业余音乐爱好者们学习使用或作参考。本教程从最基本的管弦乐队基本原理讲解起，针对每一种乐器进行完整的专题的讲解，并且从旋律的配器，和声织体的配器以及综合配器角度讲解乐器组的配器手法和MIDI音序法（即MIDI制作），为了更好地讲解音乐，讲解配器手法，本教程在宿主软件Overture内演示，其既能显示五线谱，管弦总谱，又能进入钢琴卷帘窗口进行MIDI修饰，还能加载VST插件等。 我们尽量在短的教程内融入更多的知识与经验，并加入实际的例子进行实战讲解，使朋友们既能学习到完整的配器理论，又能与MIDI 制作联系起来，使自己能够学着制作管弦乐。同时也希望朋友们循序渐进，要知道管弦乐配器不是一朝一夕可以学得透彻的，必须一步一个脚印，相信时间不久的将来一定会有惊喜的收获。 本教程的体系是这样的：弦乐组配器基础理论与实战教程，木管组配器基础理论与实战教程，铜管组配器基础理论与实战教程，打击乐与综合配器基础理论与实战教程。
本系列教程所选的例子均为音乐学院教授精心挑选的例子，很能说明管弦乐配器课题，希望朋友们能引起重视。 本教程全称名为《管弦乐队弦乐组基础理论与MIDI音序法实战教程——上》，时长约2小时10分钟，分为两个大部分，介绍如下：（1）管弦乐队基本理论：该部分最为重要，是所有管弦乐队配器的基础，其涉及到一系列的基本原理，都适用 到以后的配器法的学习中，并且在学习一段时间之后 再回顾会有不小的启发。该部分讲解了管弦乐队组织 的基本原理，各种乐器介绍，乐器组介绍，乐队概念 介绍，以及重要的乐队音响的六个表现要素理论：音 质与音色，音区，密度，厚度，声部排列，力度。 （2）弦乐组基本理论与MIDI音序法实战：该部分进入到弦乐组的配器学习中，并且结合MIDI处理讲解配器 法，因此相比较一般的配器教程更有针对性。首先介 绍发音原理，其次介绍重要的定弦，音域与音区问题， 接着是各种乐器音色的讲解，结合以不同的典型例子 讲解旋律与音色的关系。接下来是把位介绍和最重要 的弓法理论与MIDI音序法：连弓弓法与MIDI音序法， 断弓弓法与MIDI音序法，震音弓法与MIDI音序法， 每种弓法都有实际的例子讲解应用。接下来是和弦和 双音理论，这在配器中也是很常用的，能取得较好效 果。接下来是特殊演奏技法：拨弦理论与MIDI音序
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